Machu Picchu and its Tourism Problem: What to Do Next?
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| Crowds at Machu Picchu - https://7summitsproject.com/machu-picchu-commercialisation-icon/
As stated in the end of my first post, the amount of people visiting Machu Picchu each day is massive, and as mentioned in my second post, the destruction tourism is causing effects not only the cultural site but the natural environment as well. Peru has tried to do what it can to limit tourism: only 500 people can be on the Inca trail, costs have risen, visitors are only allowed during two shifts and must leave at the end of their shift, visitors must wear soft shoes, and the list of prohibited items at the site keeps growing. However, many people think this is not enough, but others think it's too much.
The largest dilema Peru faces is its reliance on tourism generated by Machu Picchu. Tourism cannot simply end: the national and local economies would be devastated. International tourism doubled from 2000 to 2010 and keeps growing. Tourism is the largest growing industry in Peru. Ninety percent of tourists in Peru travel to Cusco. Over half of those tourists visit Machu Picchu. Considering these numbers are only getting higher, innovative new managing plans must be looked at and implemented.
Machu Picchu in 1934 - https://7summitsproject.com/machu-picchu-commercialisation-icon/
Why Lived-In Landscapes Matter to Nature Conservation
by Adrian Phillips
Phillips describes the lived-in landscape as "the meeting place of nature and people, of past and present, and of tangible and intangible values" (pg. 10). It's a place where protection of biodiversity and heritage intersect. In other words, it's Machu Picchu. Even UNESCO recognizes the richness of Machu Picchu, classifying it as a mixed site with cultural and natural importance.
Phillips alludes to ideas of the pristine myth and how we conceive wilderness. For years, conservation has been the idea that humans must be excluded from "wilderness." As Phillips, and a growing number of scientists, argues, this is the opposite of helpful. Exclusion ignores the fact that almost all landscapes are cultural landscapes, meaning humans have played a role in it for hundreds to thousands and even millions of years. These roles are not passive either, humans actively shape the landscapes around them, and many times can actually create "niches" for nature, increasing biodiversity. Phillips cites indigenous peoples throughout the world as examples of people who live in harmony with nature. (Although we must be careful going too far in this direction and returning to the idea of the "noble savage".)
If we apply Phillips argument to Machu Picchu, it reveals that no tourism at all is not a solution. Machu Picchu is a cultural landscape, literally created by humans, and if we treat it like wilderness, it will not survive. Compare the image of it above from 1934 to today. Ignoring Machu Picchu allow it to be swallowed by the jungle again, resulting in a major loss of cultural importance.
Touring Ancient Times: The Present and Presented Past in Contemporary Peru
by Helaine Silverman
Silverman looks at not only the economic challenges Machu Picchu and its nearby hub, Cusco, face due to tourism, but also the complex social forces that often clash when tourism decisions must be made. As she says, "Peru is an important area in which to explore the multifaceted aspects of the present past because stunning archaeological sites create a highly visible landscape that is both physically and ideologically obtrusive" (pg. 882).
Silverman's argument centers around the idea that the archaeological past is converted into a tourism project. Furthermore, she believes that these reconstructions of the past are done with a nationalist perspective, embedding them with a historical struggle that usually revolves around class. For Silverman, an excellent example is Cusco and it shifting roles throughout Peruvian history: from the Inca's bustling capital to absolute destruction at the hands of the Spanish to being overshadowed by the new and modern Lima to finally being destroyed in the 1950 earthquake and given a chance to rebuild itself as modern as well, exciting, and a gateway to the Inca culture.
Cusco - https://www.roadaffair.com/best-things-to-do-in-cusco-peru/
Silverman reiterates the economic importance of Machu Picchu and its related tourist industries in sustaining the national and local Cusco economies. However, she argues that since it is so important to the local communities and their prosperity, they must be the ones to control it. Also important to Silverman is the role tourism plays in globalizing the Peruvian people. Tourism allows Peruvians a voice and the chance to use that voice for resources that better the future of the country. This can be an incredibly useful tool for the indigenous Peruvians, who for hundreds of years, have been oppressed, discriminated, and their culture exploited.
However, tourism is a double edged sword for the indigenous stakeholders. While tourism can be a useful tool, it has yet to be implemented this way in Peru. Instead, Silverman observes that there has been a selective recreation of the past to appeal to groups in the present. Cusco in particular uses this in its reinvention of its identity. As Silverman states, Cusco is a palimpsest of past and present ideas, but the only time they incorporate the Inca past is to create a "new ancient city." Silverman label this as image control, a "dehistorization" that values image over accuracy, thus preventing those of the Inca present (the indigenous) from fully experiencing their culture. Rather, they get "incanismo" a romanticized idea of the Inca past, one that's easily sellable to global tourists. Thus, Silverman presents the fundamental contradiction of global tourism:
"[global tourism] diminishes cultural differences through international contact while simultaneously requiring and producing "authentic" experiences of the Other and Otherness as a motivation for travel (see especially the cover of Condé Nast Traveller, May 1996)" (pg. 888) 
The Other: Condé Nast Cover May 1996 - https://www.cntraveler.com/gallery/30-years-of-conde-nast-traveler-covers
Mural depicting "inca" culture in Cusco, Silverman points out that the Sun Plate at the top is actually from an earlier people - from Silverman article
Incanismo is present not only socially, but can also physically manifest itself on the landscape of Cusco and within the everyday lives of Peruvians. In second grade, Peruvian children are taught to be kind and polite to tourists. Homes are repainted to fit a certain theme. Shanty towns take over archaeological spaces, as more Peruvians lose space or cannot pay increasing costs. Silverman especially takes note of the loss of space, both tangibly and socially. She states that there are over 470,000 visitors to Cusco, compared to the 300,000 Peruvian population. The global voice that she mentioned disappears as too many others overshadow the Peruvians'. Silverman hopes for Cusco to avoid the fate of Aguas Calientes: a town built to serve as the perfect tourist entryway for Machu Picchu.
Tourist Trap: Aguas Calientes - http://www.cosmicadventure.com/g3/index.php/Peru-Panama/AguasCaliente/Aguas-Caliente_-the-tourist-trap-town-that-everyone-must-go-through-to-see-Machu-Picchu
Silverman concludes that Cusco and Machu Picchu are fragile, nonrenewable resources. If tourists destroy them, they and all the Inca history they hold will be gone. One possible solution: the promotion of other Inca and pre-Columbian sites in Peru such as the Nazca lines. This is one of the most common solutions, as Peru holds contains a plethora of sites that are monumentally less crowded and well-known as Machu Picchu. Peru has taken steps to promote other sites, particularly after El Niño floods in 2010 left Machu Picchu closed. However, tourism still decreased throughout the country, yet instantly rebounded once Machu Picchu reopened. Other sites are an option, but nothing can decrease the popularity of Machu Picchu.
Map of main Inca sites in Peru - https://www.123rf.com/photo_72679465_stock-vector-road-map-of-peru-with-the-main-inca-ruins.html
Nazca lines made by the Nazca people (not how they actually appear) - https://www.machutravelperu.com/blog/how-were-the-nazca-lines-made
Once again a not so perfect solution: we cannot conserve Machu Picchu by getting rid of people or even successfully decrease the amount of people. So, we need a plan for the site that balances tourism with all stakeholders.
Developing Sustainable Tourism through Adaptive Resource Management: A Case Study of Machu Picchu, Peru
by Lincoln Larson and Neelam Poudyal
Peru wants to expand tourism, however Machu Picchu is ranked one of the most rapidly deteriorating World Heritage Sites, so Larson and Poudyal present a plan for tourism tailored to Machu Picchu based on the UN's World Tourist Organization's sustainable tourism framework. The plan takes into account all stakeholder goals. These goals can divided in two:
"advocates of the mass tourism strategy want to increase access to the site, generate revenue for regional governments, private operators and local communities, and promote Inca culture as a marketable commodity. Opponents of mass tourism want to limit access, preserve ecological, archaeological and spiritual assets, and protect existing cultures and livelihoods in Peru's Andean highlands." (pg. 918)
However, Larson and Poudyal point out that resource protection and development can both work together in tourism, but it can get messy, like Machu Picchu. They believe that if Machu Picchu can successfully implement the plan and incorporate all goals, then so can others.
The authors define sustainable development as concerned with ecosystems, how they function and preserving this. Key in this development is ensuring that it "meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs" (pg. 918). Therefore, sustainable tourism is designed to "maximize benefits and minimize impacts, thereby increasing the likelihood of long-term persistence" (pg. 919) accounting for resource-based, activity-based, and community-based traditions.
This is easier said then done of course, and especially faces difficulties given Machu Picchu's unique set of management challenges. The ecosystem's fragility is especially concerning. Machu Picchu is a cloud forest ecosystem, 90% of which have already been lost in the Andes. Noise pollution has already led to the disappearance of Andean condors. As mentioned, Machu Picchu is susceptible to landslides and earthquakes, and the addition of more tourist buildings and structures around the site are at risk. It's been reported that parts of the city is sliding downhill 0.4 inches every year. There is also the fact that Machu Picchu was built for less than one thousand people, who were much smaller, barefooted, and less destructive than the 2,000+ visitors everyday.
Gone: Andean Condor - https://www.chimuadventures.com/blog/2016/07/andean-condor/
At Risk: Endangered Andean spectacled bear - https://animals.sandiegozoo.org/animals/andean-spectacled-bear
Other challenges include the sites difficult accessibility. Proposals to make it easier to Machu Picchu are constantly brought forward and most often shut down. Even the Inca trail, which was promoted to relieve bus and foot traffic from Aguas Calientes has become worn down by too many people using it. Local development, particularly in Aguas Calientes whose booming population has caused pollution, lack of identity, and gross social inequality due to the foreign ownership of most tourist companies. There is also the problem of cultural degradation due to incanismo and ensuring the persistence of Peruvian culture. Finally, Machu Picchu is very institutionally complex with a variety of foreign and national stakeholders and increasing regional and local management.
Taking into consideration these challenges, the authors present the following priorities sustainable tourism must address: repairing and combating destruction from excessive use and establishing a carrying capacity that limits overcrowding and its resulting aesthetic detriment. UNESCO has recommended limiting visitors to 800 and only allowing soft shoes. Peru has implemented the shoe recommendation, but objects to cutting down that drastically on the number of visitors.
Goals of Adaptive Resource Management in Machu Picchu: 
While implementing Adaptive Resource Management (ARM), there can be no ambiguity in goals. Once implemented, performance indicators must be developed for environmental health and poverty alleviation. Finally, incorporating monitoring of these goals and their progress must be a part of management based science.
Steps to Sustainable Tourism through an ARM Plan
from article
Larson and Poudyal conclude by stressing the importance of communication between those responsible for Machu Picchu in the implementation of ARM. Only if the many stakeholders are willing to openly collaborate will this work. If implemented successfully, Machu Picchu would be an excellent example for sustainable tourism in sites that cross the natural and cultural, while also allowing Machu Picchu itself to experience a future of sustainable growth.
The End?
The irony of human impacts now being so great as to endanger cultural artifacts is a contemporary ecological and archaeological issue that will only continue to grow as the world and science continues to expand. The longevity and advanced planning the Inca used when determining how to build Machu Picchu in its specific environment, as described in my second post, serve as a reminder and contrast to the vulnerable condition of the site today. Overall, Machu Picchu serves as a microcosm that weaves a compelling narrative of the intersections of human and natural and how these relationships have developed over a long and complicated history, and will continue to change in the future.
Sources
Larson, Lincoln R., and Neelam C. Poudyal. "Developing Sustainable Tourism through Adaptive
Resource Management: A Case Study of Machu Picchu, Peru." Journal of Sustainable Tourism
20.7 (September 2012): 917-38. Accessed October 14, 2018.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2012.667217
Phillips, Adrian. "Why Lived-in Landscapes Matter to Nature Conservation." APT Bulletin 34,
no. 1 (2003): 5-10. Accessed October 11, 2018. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1504846.
Sachs, Andrea. "Peru Devises New Rules to Tackle the Mounting Crowds on Machu Picchu."
The Washington Post, February 2, 2017. Accessed December 03, 2018.
_story.html?utm_term=.66aaf477ef5a.
Silverman, Helaine. "Touring Ancient Times: The Present and Presented Past in Contemporary
Peru." American Anthropologist 104.3 (September 2002): 881-902. Accessed October
11, 2018. https://www.jstor.org/stable/27859260.
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